ABSTRACT

External and internal parasites are the two types of parasites that are detrimental to human health. Parasites may live on the outside or within the host. Approximately 200,000 individuals are killed by parasite illnesses each year, which affect 3.5 billion people. In developing countries, these parasites cause fatal diseases such toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, and malaria, which have high rates of morbidity and mortality. Endoparasites are organisms that live in biological environments and are a serious danger to human health, whereas ectoparasites are arthropods that transfer specific parasites or cause disease.
Leishmania sp. is one of the most important of these parasites. Leishmaniasis is caused by the obligate protozoan parasite Leishmania. Of the many parasite species discovered in this genus, twenty-one are considered pathogens. Leishmania ethiopia, Leishmania donovani, and Leishmania amazonensis are some of the species that cause leishmaniasis. Once an infected person or animal’s blood is consumed by a sandfly, leishmaniasis is spread. The illness causes ulcers, and the infection can spread to other parts of the body. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), and mucosal leishmaniasis (ML) are the three primary forms of leishmaniasis. Mucosal leishmaniasis symptoms often take one to five years to manifest. Most treatments for parasitic infections are no longer effective due to parasite resistance and a range of pharmacological side effects, even though many have been discontinued.
Chemical drugs and ethnobotanicals were used in the past to treat parasites. Resistance in parasites has been brought about by these chemotherapies. New biotechnologies that will enhance the safety of existing antiparasitic drugs and the accuracy, efficacy, and tolerability of diagnostic tests are thus the greatest means of addressing the problem of the aforementioned parasitic diseases. Chemical drugs and ethnobotanicals were used in the past to treat parasites. Resistance in parasites has been brought about by these chemotherapies. New biotechnologies that will enhance the safety of existing antiparasitic drugs and the accuracy, efficacy, and tolerability of diagnostic tests are thus the greatest means of addressing the problem of the aforementioned parasitic diseases.
In the discipline of nanotechnology (also known as “nanoparticle-based science”), physical, chemical, and biological systems with sizes ranging from submicrometer widths to individual atoms or molecules use technology. Research on pharmaceutical delivery and medical diagnostics are included. Pharmaceutical dosage forms based on nanotechnology are now being manufactured and used widely around the world. Advanced technologies in engineering, veterinary medicine, and medicine are only a few of the many different domains of knowledge that nanotechnology covers. New products based on nanotechnology, such as vaccines, recombinant proteins, and other pharmaceutical alternatives, provide safer environments for humans and/or animals. Biological applications such as drug delivery and issue engineering, bioimaging, and nanodiagnostics are among the many fields that have profited substantially from nanotechnology. Applications of nanodiagnostic methods for infectious diseases are growing in popularity due to their unique high sensitivity and early detection capabilities. Since antibiotic resistance is currently a threat to public health, several sectors have been established and significant progress has been made in the search for new and effective treatments. The development of antibacterial drugs heavily relies on nanomedicines because of their numerous advantages. Parasites, such as worms and protozoa, are common in Iraq. There have been a lot of studies done on diagnosis and treatment.

KEYWORDS

Leishmaniasis, Nanotechnology, antiparasites

REFERENCES

1) Correa-Cárdenas, C. A., Pérez, J., Patino, L. H., Ramírez, J. D., Duque, M. C.,Romero, Y., Cantillo-Barraza, O., Rodríguez, O., Alvarado, M. T., Cruz, C., & Méndez, C. (2020). Distribution, treatment outcome and genetic diversity of Leishmania species in military personnel from Colombia with cutaneous leishmaniasis. BMC Infectious Diseases, 20(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12879-020-05529-Y/FIGURES/4
2) Patino, L. H., Imamura, H., Cruz-Saavedra, L., Pavia, P., Muskus, C., Méndez, C.,Dujardin, J. C., & Ramírez, J. D. (2019). Major changes in chromosomal somy, gene expression and gene dosage driven by SbIII in Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania panamensis. Scientific Reports, 9(1).https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-019-45538-9
3) Saini, P., Kumar, N. P., Ajithlal, P. M., Joji, A., Rajesh, K. R., Reena, K. J., &Kumar, A. (2020). Visceral Leishmaniasis Caused by Leishmania donovani Zymodeme MON-37, Western Ghats, India. Emerging Infectious Diseases,1956 (8),26. https://doi.org/10.3201/EID2608.200557
4) Kumar, G. A., Karmakar, J., Mandal, C., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2019). Leishmania donovani Internalizes into Host Cells via Caveolin-mediated Endocytosis. Scientific Reports 2019 9:1, 9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-1-49007.
5) Conceição-Silva, F., & Morgado, F. N. (2019). Leishmania Spp-Host Interaction: There Is Always an Onset, but Is There an End. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 9, 330. https://doi.org/10.3389/FCIMB.2019.00330 
6) Arenas, R., Torres-Guerrero, E., Quintanilla-Cedillo, M. R., & Ruiz-Esmenjaud, J.(2017).Leishmaniasis: a review. F1000Research, 6. https://doi.org/10.12688/F1000RESEARCH.11120.1
7) Vivero, R. J., Villegas-Plazas, M., Cadavid-Restrepo, G. E., Herrera, C. X. M,Uribe, S. I., & Junca, H. (2019). Methylobacterium and natural carriage of Wolbachia and Cardinium types in the midgut microbiome. Scientific Reports 2019 9:1, 9(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53769-z
8) Tonelli, G. B., Binder, C., Margonari, C., & Filho, J. D. A. (2021). Sand fly behavior: much more than weak-flying. Memórias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 116(1). https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760210230
9) Bilgic-Temel, A., Murrell, D. F., & Uzun, S. (2019). Cutaneous leishmaniasis: A neglected disfiguring disease for women. International Journal of Women’s Dermatology, 5(3), 158. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJWD.2019.01.002
10) Al-Jabi, S. W. (2019). Arab world’s growing contribution to global leishmaniasis research (1998–2017): a bibliometric study. BMC Public Health, 19(1).https://doi.org/10.1186/S12889-019-6969-9
11) Bonfim, N. E. S. M. T., Scott, A. L. B., Calderon, L. de A., Bonfim, N. E. S. M. T., Scott, A. L. B., & Calderon, L. de A. (2022). Leishmaniasis: Molecular Aspects of Parasite Dimorphic Forms Life Cycle. Leishmaniasis – General Aspects of a Stigmatized Disease. https://doi.org/10.5772/INTECHOPEN.102370
12) Basmaciyan, L., & Casanova, M. (2019). Cell death in Leishmania. Parasite, 26, 71. https://doi.org/10.1051/PARASITE/2019071
13) Li, V., Moal, E.-L., Loiseau, P. M., Loiseau, P. M., & Chemotherapy, A. (2016). Leishmania hijacking of the macrophage intracellular compartments. The FEBS Journal, 283(4), 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1111/FEBS.13601
14) Yaseen, F. T., & Ali, H. Z. (2016). Using of Species-Specific Primers for Molecular Diagnosis of in Vitro Promastigotes of Leishmania donovani. Iraqi Journal of Science, 824–829.
15) Halliday, C., Yanase, R., Catta-Preta, C. M. C., Moreira-Leite, F., Myskova, J., Pruzinova, K., Volf, P., Mottram, J. C., & Sunter, J. D. (2020). Role for the flagellum attachment zone in Leishmania anterior cell tip morphogenesis. PLoS Pathogens, 16(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PPAT.1008494
16) Jariyapan, N., Daroontum, T., Jaiwong, K., Chanmol, W., Intakhan, N., Sor- Suwan, S., Siriyasatien, P., Somboon, P., Bates, M. D., & Bates, P. A. (2018). Leishmania (Mundinia) orientalis n. sp. (Trypanosomatidae), aparasite from Thailand responsible for localised cutaneous leishmaniasis .Parasites and Vectors, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13071-018-
17) Young, J., & Kima, P. E. (2019). Focus: Organelles: The Leishmania Parasitophorous Vacuole Membrane at the Parasite-Host Interface. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 92(3), 511. /pmc/articles/PMC6747952/
18) De Menezes, J. P., Saraiva, E. M., & Da Rocha-Azevedo, B. (2016). The site of the bite: Leishmania interaction with macrophages, neutrophils and the extracellular matrix in the dermis. Parasites & Vectors, 9(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/S13071-016-1540-3
19) Giraud, E., Lestinova, T., Derrick, T., Martin, O., Dillon, R. J., Volf, P., Műller, I., Bates, P. A., & Rogers, M. E. (2018). Leishmania proteophosphoglycans regurgitated from infected sand flies accelerate dermal wound repair andexacerbate leishmaniasis via insulin-like growth factor 1-dependent signalling. PLoS Pathogens, 14(1).
https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PPAT.1006794
20) Clos, J., Grünebast, J., & Holm, M. (2022). Promastigote-to-Amastigote Conversion in Leishmania spp.— A Molecular View. Pathogens (2022). Vol. 11, Page 1052, 11(9), 1052.https://doi.org/10.3390/PATHOGENS11091052
21) Giraud, E., Svobodova, M., Muller, I., Volf, P., & Rogers, M. E. (2019). Promastigote secretory gel from natural and unnatural sand fly vectors exacerbate Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice. Parasitology, 146(14), 1796. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182019001069
22) De Brito, R. C. F., Aguiar-Soares, R. D. de O., Cardoso, J. M. de O., Coura-Vital, W., Roatt, B. M., & Reis, A. B. (2020). Recent advances and new strategies in Leishmaniasis diagnosis. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104(19), 8105–8116. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00253-020-10846-Y
23) Thakur, L., Singh, K. K., Kushwaha, H. R., Sharma, S. K., Shankar, V., Negi, A. Verma, G., Kumari, S., Jain, A., & Jain, M. (2020). Leishmania donovani Infection with Atypical Cutaneous Manifestations, Himachal Pradesh, India, 2014-2018. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26(8), 1864. https://doi.org/10.3201/EID2608.191761
24) Siriwardana, Y., Zhou, G., Deepachandi, B., Akarawita, J., Wickremarathne, C,. Warnasuriya, W., Udagedara, C., Ranawaka, R. R., Kahawita, I.,Ariyawansa, D., Sirimanna, G., Chandrawansa, P. H., & Karunaweera, N. D.(2019).Trends in Recently Emerged Leishmania donovani Induced Cutaneous Leishmaniasis, Sri Lanka, for the First 13 Years. BioMed Research International, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4093603
25) Zheng, Z., Chen, J., Ma, G., Satoskar, A. R., & Li, J. (2020). Integrative genomic, proteomic and phenotypic studies of Leishmania donovani strains revealed genetic features associated with virulence and antimony-resistance. Parasites and Vectors, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13071-020-4-04397- FIGURES/8
26) Bekhit, A. A., El-Agroudy, E., Helmy, A., Ibrahim, T. M., Shavandi, A., & Bekhit, A. E. D. A. (2018). Leishmania treatment and prevention: Natural and synthesized drugs. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 160, 229-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJMECH.2018.10.022
27) Bekhit, A. A., El-Agroudy, E., Helmy, A., Ibrahim, T. M., Shavandi, A., & Bekhit, A. E. D. A. (2018). Leishmania treatment and prevention: Natural and synthesized drugs. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 160, 229–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJMECH.2018.10.022
28) Reddy, K. (2019). Current Perspectives on Leishmaniasis. Journal of Gandaki Medical College-Nepal, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3126/JGMCN.V12I1.22598
29) Scarpini, S., Dondi, A., Totaro, C., Biagi, C., Melchionda, F., Zama, D., Pierantoni, L., Gennari, M., Campagna, C., Prete, A., & Lanari, M. (2022). Visceral Leishmaniasis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment Regimens in Different Geographical Areas with a Focus on Pediatrics. Microorganisms, (10),10
https://doi.org/10.3390/MICROORGANISMS10101887
30) Alvar, J., den Boer, M., & Dagne, D. A. (2021). Towards the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis as a public health problem in east Africa: reflections on an enhanced control strategy and a call for action. The Lancet. Global Health,(12)9 e1763. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00392-2
31) Berriatua, E., Maia, C., Conceição, C., Özbel, Y., Töz, S., Baneth, G., PérezCutillas, P., Ortuño, M., Muñoz, C., Jumakanova, Z., Pereira, A., Rocha, R,. Monge-Maillo, B., Gasimov, E., van der Stede, Y., Torres, G., & Gossner, C. M. (2021). Leishmaniases in the European Union and Neighboring Countries. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27(6), 1723. https://doi.org/10.3201/EID2706.210239
32) Al-Hayali, H. L., & alkattan, M. (2021). Overview on Epidemiology of Leishmaniasis in Iraq. College of Science/ University of Mosul, 30(1), 28–37. https://doi.org/10.33899/RJS.2021.167680
33) Rashid, B. O., Al-Dabbagh, Z. S., Aswad, S. M., Al-Dabbagh, S. A., & Al-Hayali, H. N. (2020). An outbreak of cutaneous leishmaniasis among internally displaced persons from the Nineveh governorate reported by Duhok Preventive Health Department from 2015 to 2017. Zanco Journal of Medical Sciences (Zanco J Med Sci), 24(1), 153–159. https://doi.org/10.15218/ZJMS.2020.018
34) Usmael, U. A., Tesema, N. B., Girma, S., Kendie, D. A., & Abas, M. K. (2022). Detection of Leishmania donovani using ITS1-RFLP from positive and negative smear samples among clinically reported patients visiting University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. BMC Infectious Diseases, 22(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12879-022-07930-
35) Banu, S. S., Meyer, W., Ahmed, B. N., Kim, R., & Lee, R. (2016). Detection of Leishmania donovani in peripheral blood of asymptomatic individuals in contact with patients with visceral leishmaniasis. Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 110(5), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1093/TRSTMH/TRW027
36) Lemma, W., Bizuneh, A., Tekie, H., Belay, H., Wondimu, H., Kassahun, A.,Shiferaw, W., Balkew, M., Abassi, I., Baneth, G., & Hailu, A. (2017). Preliminary study on investigation of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in endemic foci of Ethiopia by detecting Leishmania infections in rodents. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 10(4), 418–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APJTM.2017.03.018
37) Zackay, A., Cotton, J. A., Sanders, M., Hailu, A., Nasereddin, A., Warburg, A&, Jaffe, C. L. (2018). Genome wide comparison of Ethiopian Leishmania donovani strains reveals differences potentially related to parasite survival. PLOS Genetics, 14(1), e1007133. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PGEN.1007133
38) Boitz, J. M., Gilroy, C. A., Olenyik, T. D., Paradis, D., Perdeh, J., Dearman, K., Davis, M. J., Yates, P. A., Li, Y., Riscoe, M. K., Ullman, B., & Roberts, S. C. (2017). Arginase is essential for survival of Leishmania donovani promastigotes but not intracellular amastigotes. Infection and Immunity,(1)85.
https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00554-/16 SUPPL_FILE/ZII999091928S1.PDF
39) Jardim, A., Hardie, D. B., Boitz, J., & Borchers, C. H. (2018). Proteomic Profiling of Leishmania donovani Promastigote Subcellular Organelles. Journal of Proteome Research, 17(3), 1194–1215.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.JPROTEOME.7B00817/SUPPL_FILE/PR7B 00817_SI_008.PDF
40) Kumar, G. A., Karmakar, J., Mandal, C., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2019). Leishmania donovani Internalizes into Host Cells via Caveolin-mediated Endocytosis. Scientific Reports 2019 9:1, 9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-1-49007.
41) Thakur, L., Madaan, P., Jain, A., Shankar, V., Negi, A., Chauhan, S. B., Sundar, S., Singh, O. P., & Jain, M. (2022). An Insight Into Systemic Immune Response in Leishmania donovani Mediated Atypical Cutaneous
42) Leishmaniasis in the New Endemic State of Himachal Pradesh, India. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, 5179. https://doi.org/10.3389/FIMMU.2021.765684/BIBTEX
43) Conceição-Silva, F., & Morgado, F. N. (2019). Leishmania Spp-Host Interaction: There Is Always an Onset, but Is There an End. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 9, 330. https://doi.org/10.3389/FCIMB.2019.00330
44) Ávila, L. R., Gomes, C. M., Oliveira, P. G., Gomes, R. S., Vinaud, M. C., Dorta, M. L., Uliana, S. R. B., Ribeiro-Dias, F., & Oliveira, M. A. P. (2018).
45) Promastigote parasites cultured from the lesions of patients with mucosal leishmaniasis are more resistant to oxidative stress than promastigotes from a cutaneous lesion. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 129, 35–45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FREERADBIOMED.2018.09.005
46) Sunter, J., & Gull, K. (2017). Shape, form, function and Leishmania pathogenicity: from textbook descriptions to biological understanding. Open Biology, 7(9).https://doi.org/10.1098/RSOB.170165.
47) Sadlova, J., Myskova, J., Lestinova, T., Votypka, J., Yeo, M., & Volf, P. (2017). Leishmania donovani development in Phlebotomus argentipes: comparison of promastigote- and amastigote-initiated infections. Parasitology, 144(4),403. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182016002067
48) Smirnoff, N. (2018). Ascorbic acid metabolism and functions: A comparison of plants and mammals. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 122, 116. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FREERADBIOMED.2018.03.033
49) Pruzinova, K., Sadlova, J., Myskova, J., Lestinova, T., Janda, J., & Volf, P. (2018).Leishmania mortality in sand fly blood meal is not species-specific and doesnot result from direct effect of proteinases. Parasites and Vectors, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13071-018-2613-2/FIGURES/4
50) Hall, M. J. R., Ghosh, D., Martín-Vega, D., Clark, B., Clatworthy, I., Cheke, R. A., & Rogers, M. E. (2021). Micro-CT visualization of a promastigote secretory gel (PSG) and parasite plug in the digestive tract of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis infected with Leishmania mexicana. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15(8), e0009682. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PNTD.0009682
51) Chanmol, W., Jariyapan, N., Preativatanyou, K., Mano, C., Tippawangkosol, P., Somboon, P., & Bates, P. A. (2022). Stimulation of metacyclogenesis in Leishmania (Mundinia) orientalis for mass production of metacyclic promastigotes. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 1314. https://doi.org/10.3389/FCIMB.2022.992741/BIBTEX
52) Derghal, M., Tebai, A., Balti, G., Souguir-Omrani, H., Chemkhi, J., Rhim, A., Bouattour, A., Guizani, I., M’Ghirbi, Y., & Guerbouj, S. (2022). High- resolution melting analysis identifies reservoir hosts of zoonotic Leishmania parasites in Tunisia. Parasites and Vectors, 15(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13071-021-05138-X/FIGURES/3
53) Zaatour, W., Marilleau, N., Giraudoux, P., Martiny, N., Amara, A. B. H., & Miled, S. Ben. (2021). An agent-based model of a cutaneous leishmaniasis reservoir host, Meriones shawi. Ecological Modelling, 443, 109455.https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOLMODEL.2021.109455.
54) Bayda, S., Adeel, M., Tuccinardi, T., Cordani, M., & Rizzolio, F. (2019). The History of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: From Chemical–Physical Applications to Nanomedicine. Molecules 2020, Vol. 25, Page 112, 25(1),112. https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES25010112
55) Contera, S., De La Serna, J. B., & Tetley, T. D. (2020). Biotechnology, nanotechnology and medicine. Emerging Topics in Life Sciences, 4(6), 551. https://doi.org/10.1042/ETLS20200350
56) Aghababai Beni, A., & Jabbari, H. (2022). Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications. Results in Engineering, 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100467
57) Xu, X., Liu, C., Wang, Y., Koivisto, O., Zhou, J., Shu, Y., & Zhang, H. (2021). Nanotechnology-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 for cancer treatment. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 176.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDR.2021.113891
58) Ratner, B. D. (2019). Biomaterials: Been There, Done That, and Evolving into the Future. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering, 21, 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-BIOENG-062117-120940
59) Almatroudi, A. (2020). Silver nanoparticles: synthesis, characterisation and biomedical applications. Open Life Sciences, 15(1), 819. https://doi.org/10.1515/BIOL-2020-0094
60) Hikal, W. M., Bratovcic, A., Baeshen, R. S., Tkachenko, K. G., Ahl, H. A. H. S.- A., Hikal, W. M., Bratovcic, A., Baeshen, R. S., Tkachenko, K. G., & Ahl, H. A. H. S.-A. (2021). Nanobiotechnology for the Detection and Control of Waterborne Parasites. Open Journal of Ecology, 11(3), 203–223. https://doi.org/10.4236/OJE.2021.113016
61) Singh, A., Kaur, K., Singh, A., & Kaur, K. (2019). Biological and Physical Applications of Silver Nanoparticles with Emerging Trends of Green Synthesis. Engineered Nanomaterials – Health and Safety.
https://doi.org/10.5772/INTECHOPEN.88684
62) Yetisgin, A. A., Cetinel, S., Zuvin, M., Kosar, A., & Kutlu, O. (2020). Therapeutic Nanoparticles and Their Targeted Delivery Applications. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 25(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES25092193
63) Nguyen, D. D., & Lai, J. Y. (2022). Synthesis, bioactive properties, and biomedical applications of intrinsically therapeutic nanoparticles for disease treatment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 435, 134970. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2022.134970
64) Chenthamara, D., Subramaniam, S., Ramakrishnan, S. G., Krishnaswamy, S., Essa, M. M., Lin, F. H., & Qoronfleh, M. W. (2019). Therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticles and routes of administration. Biomaterials Research 2019, 1-29 (1)23,23:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40824-019-0166-X
65) Yao, Y., Zhou, Y., Liu, L., Xu, Y., Chen, Q., Wang, Y., Wu, S., Deng, Y., Zhang, J., & Shao, A. (2020). Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy and Its Role in Overcoming Drug Resistance. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 7, 193. https://doi.org/10.3389/FMOLB.2020.00193/BIBTEX
66) Gomaa, M. (2022). Potential applications of inorganic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in parasitic diseases. Parasitologists United Journal, 15(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.21608/PUJ.2022.108173.1145
67) Yuan, K., Jurado-Sánchez, B., & Escarpa, A. (2022). Nanomaterials meet surface- enhanced Raman scattering towards enhanced clinical diagnosis: a review. Journal of Nanobiotechnology 2022 20:1, 20(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12951-022-01711-3
68) Arif, M. S., Ulfiya, R., Erwin, & Panggabean, A. S. (2021). Synthesis silver nanoparticles using trisodium citrate and development in analysis method. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2360(1), 050007. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0059493
69) Courrol, D. dos S., Lopes, C. R. B., Pereira, C. B. P., Franzolin, M. R., Silva, F. R. de O.& Courrol, L. C. (2019). Tryptophan Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized by Photoreduction Method: Characterization and Determination of Bactericidal and Anti-Biofilm Activities on Resistant and Susceptible Bacteria. International Journal of Tryptophan Research : IJTR, 12. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178646919831677
70) Suriyakala, G., Sathiyaraj, S., Devanesan, S., AlSalhi, M. S., Rajasekar, A,.Maruthamuthu, M. K., & Babujanarthanam, R. (2022). Phytosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Jatropha integerrima Jacq. flower extract and their possible applications as antibacterial and antioxidant agent. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 29(2), 680–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SJBS.2021.12.007
71) Akintola, A. O., Kehinde, B. D., Ayoola, P. B., Adewoyin, A. G., Adedosu, O. T. Ajayi, J. F., & Ogunsona, S. B. (2020). Antioxidant properties of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from methanolic leaf extract of Blighia sapida. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 805(1), 012004.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/805/1/012004
72) Abou Elez, R. M. M., Attia, A. S. A., Tolba, H. M. N., Anter, R. G. A., & Elsohaby, I. (2023). Molecular identification and antiprotozoal activity of silver nanoparticles on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum isolated from pigeons, pigeon fanciers and water. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-023-30270-2
73) Alti, D., Veeramohan Rao, M., Rao, D. N., Maurya, R., & Kalangi, S. K. (2020). Gold-Silver Bimetallic Nanoparticles Reduced with Herbal Leaf Extracts Induce ROS-Mediated Death in Both Promastigote and Amastigote Stages of Leishmania donovani. ACS Omega, 5(26), 16238–16245.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSOMEGA.0C02032/ASSET/IMAGES/MEDIUM/AO0C02032_M001.
74) Gélvez, A. P. C., Diniz Junior, J. A. P., Brígida, R. T. S. S., & Rodrigues, A. P. D.(2021). AgNP-PVP-meglumine antimoniate nanocomposite reduces Leishmania amazonensis infection in macrophages. BMC Microbiology, 1-14,(1)21. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12866-021-02267-2/FIGURES/7
75) Rana, A., Yadav, K., & Jagadevan, S. (2020). A comprehensive review on green synthesis of nature-inspired metal nanoparticles: Mechanism, application and toxicity. Journal of Cleaner Production, 272, 122880.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2020.122880
76) Ridolfo, R., Tavakoli, S., Junnuthula, V., Williams, D. S., Urtti, A., & Van Hest, J. C. M. (2021). Exploring the Impact of Morphology on the Properties of Biodegradable Nanoparticles and Their Diffusion in Complex Biological Medium. Biomacromolecules, 22(1), 126–133.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.BIOMAC.0C00726/SUPPL_FILE/BM0C007014.MP4.
77) Jain, A. S., Pawar, P. S., Sarkar, A., Junnuthula, V., & Dyawanapelly, S. (2021). Bionanofactories for Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: Toward Antimicrobial Applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. Vol. 22, Page 11993, 22(21), 11993. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS222111993
78) Javed, B., Raja, N. I., Nadhman, A., & Mashwani, Z. ur R. (2020). Understanding the potential of bio-fabricated non-oxidative silver nanoparticles to eradicate Leishmania and plant bacterial pathogens. ApNan, 10(6), 2057–2067. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13204-020-01355-5
79) Dinparvar, S., Bagirova, M., Allahverdiyev, A. M., Abamor, E. S., Safarov, T., Aydogdu, M., & Aktas, D. (2020). A nanotechnology-based new approach in the treatment of breast cancer: Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using Cuminum cyminum L. seed extract. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 208, 111902. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPHOTOBIOL.2020.111902
80) Sagadevan, S., Imteyaz, S., Murugan, B., Lett, J. A., Sridewi, N., Weldegebrieal, G. K., Fatimah, I., & Oh, W.-C. (2022). A comprehensive review on green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and their diverse biomedical applications: Green Processing and Synthesis, 11(1), 44–63. https://doi.org/10.1515/GPS-2022-0005
81) Jamshaid, H., Din, F. ud, & Khan, G. M. (2021). Nanotechnology based solutions for anti-leishmanial impediments: a detailed insight. Journal of Nanobiotechnology 2021 19:1, 19(1), 1–51. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12951-0-021-00853.
82) Scala, A., Neri, G., Micale, N., Cordaro, M., & Piperno, A. (2022). State of the Art on Green Route Synthesis of Gold/Silver Bimetallic Nanoparticles. Molecules 2022, Vol. 27, Page 1134, 27(3), 1134.
https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES27031134
83) Sasidharan, S., & Saudagar, P. (2022). Gold and silver nanoparticles functionalized with 4’,7-dihydroxyflavone exhibit activity against Leishmania donovani. Acta Tropica, 231, 106448. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACTATROPICA.2022.106448.
84) Hussein, H. A., Maulidiani, M., & Abdullah, M. A. (2020). Microalgal metabolites as anti-cancer/anti-oxidant agents reduce cytotoxicity of elevated silver nanoparticle levels against non-cancerous vero cells. Heliyon, 6(10), e05263. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HELIYON.2020.E05263
85) Bagirova, M., Dinparvar, S., Allahverdiyev, A. M., Unal, K., Abamor, E. S., &Novruzova, M. (2020). Investigation of antileshmanial activities of Cuminum cyminum based green silver nanoparticles on L. tropica promastigotes and amastigotes in vitro. Acta Tropica, 208, 105498. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACTATROPICA.2020.105498.
86) Al-Gburi, N., Al-Hassnawi, A., Al-Bayati L.A.(2024). Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Roles in the Biomedical Field: A Review. Medical Journal of Babylon ¦ Volume 21 ¦ Issue 3 .pp: 493- 499.
87) Al-Gburi, N., Al-Hassnawi, Abdulazeem L.(2025). Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential of Silver Nanoparticles Bio-Friendly Synthesis Using Delftia acidovorans (OM838393.1) Strain. Medical Journal of Babylon ¦ Volume 22 ¦ Issue 2. 484-490.